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THE ECONOMIC VALUE AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF THE AUSTRALIAN BEEKEEPING INDUSTRY A report prepared for the Australian beekeeping industry
by: Diana M H Gibbs, B Sc(Hons),
M Env Stud February 1998 |
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1. SUMMARY How much are apiary products worth? What is the value of crop pollination provided by honey bees? Why is access to native forests on public land so important? Does access vary from state to state? What effects do honey bees have on native plants and animals? Can honey be used to kill bacteria? Finally, is the industry at risk from exotic pests and diseases? 3. THE BEEKEEPING INDUSTRY IN AUSTRALIA 3.2 Introduction 3.3 Snapshot of industry dimensions 3.4 Industry by State 3.5 Industry by sector 3.6 References 4.2 Introduction 4.3 Direct impact of industry - gross value of production 4.3.1 By sector 4.3.2 By State 4.4 Other linked sectors - the indirect impact of industry 4.4.1 Flow-on effects from beekeeping industry 4.4.2 Supply industries 4.5 Crop pollination services provided by honey bees 4.6 Honey as a therapeutic agent 4.7 Quarantine 4.8 References 5.2 The need for pollination services 5.3 Paid pollination services 5.4 Assessments previously made of the value of unpaid pollination services 5.5 A comprehensive approach to valuation of pollination services 5.6 Value of pollination services in each State 5.7 Validation of data 5.8 References 6.2 Introduction 6.3 Public land as a resource base for migratory beekeeping 6.4 Reliance on native flora on public land for floral resources, and the response of governments to the issue of access 6.5 Pesticide-free refuges 6.6 Maintaining hive strength 6.7 Effects of excluding beekeeping from conserved areas 6.8 References 7.2 Background 7.3 Scientific studies on the environmental effects of honey bees 7.3.1 Competition studies Effects on native bees Effects on birds Effects on pollination of plants Effects on nesting sites 7.4 The importance of measuring floral resources in ecological studies 7.5. Why managed and feral honey bees must be distinguished Feral colonies 7.6 Discussion 7.7 References 1. SUMMARY Beekeeping is a unique primary industry. It depends on floral resources - nectar and pollen - about 80% of which are produced from native flora. Much of this resource is on public land. It is produced irregularly and beekeepers must often follow the seasons and honeyflows, sometime over large distances, to be successful. The many skills required for beekeeping are learned by experience and often passed from generation to generation. The industry finds itself under increasing pressure on a number of fronts. The area of native forest is declining. Governments, responding to community pressure, are conserving more of what remains. Traditional access by beekeepers to conserved forests is being questioned because honey bees are not native to Australia, and beekeepers are being denied access to some of their most valuable floral resources. Also, the industry is under threat from a number of exotic pests which have caused extensive damage to honey bees overseas. Agriculture, while providing floral resources, also competes when land is cleared and chemicals are used on crops. In order to deal with these issues properly,
the industry needs access to up-to-date information on its value and
impacts. Although scattered widely, many of the facts and figures are
available in existing reports and publications. This study brings the
relevant information together in a useful form, and answers the following
questions: What is the overall size of the industry? Managed honey bees are found in all Australian
states and territories. There are around 673,000 registered hives in
Australia, producing not only honey and beeswax but also live bees (queens
and package bees), and other products such as pollen and royal jelly.
Around 467,000 hives are operated by beekeepers with a minimum of 200
hives, and these are considered to represent the commercial industry.
It is estimated that an average of at least 30,000 tonnes of honey are
produced each year in Australia, with nearly 45% of this total coming
from beekeepers resident in NSW. Between 9,000 and 12,000 tonnes of
honey are exported each year. How much are apiary products worth? The apiary industry has its economic impact via direct effects (the gross value of production), indirect effects (demand stimulated in linked sectors) and crop pollination services. The gross value of production over all sectors of the industry is estimated as being between $60 and $65 million per annum, of which $49 million comprises honey production. As expected from hive registration data, NSW beekeepers contribute around 44% of this total value of production. Major items of expenditure for the industry
are labour and transport – with fuel being the largest single component
of the latter. It is estimated that around 80% of income (turnover)
is spent on costs of production, which means that much of the income
generated by the sale of honey and other products remains in rural areas
of Australia. Other supply sectors are located throughout Australia.
What is the value of crop pollination provided by honey bees? Some crops like almonds set very little
fruit without insect pollination. Others like cucurbits and strawberries
also require effective pollination by bees for fruit quality - shape
and size. The benefits of crop pollination accrue to the agricultural
sector and flow on to the entire Australian community. Previous estimates
of a total value of paid and unpaid pollination of around $1.2 billion/year
are supported by this study. Estimates of values to individual states
vary from $60 - 251 million. Income from paid pollination services (although
representing a minor part of this total estimated value) is important
to individual beekeepers in every state, and this sector is expected
to expand. Why is access to native forests on public land so important? The apiary industry is heavily dependent
on public land - state forests, national parks, other conserved forests,
stockroutes etc - because it contains the majority of remaining native
forest which provides most of the floral resource. It also provides
much of the network of apiary sites which the industry needs to access
to harvest the honey flows which occur irregularly and for short periods
in respective districts. Native forests on public lands also provide
the "safe harbour" and clean rehabilitation area needed to maintain
and rebuild the strength and health of hives. Does access vary from state to state? The response from government to the issue
of access to resources on public land - particularly conserved areas
- differs from state to state. In New South Wales, for example, access
to national parks has been reduced drastically through government policy
and the industry is very concerned about loss of important apiary sites.
In other states like Victoria, access agreements, which do not compromise
conservation objectives, have been reached and reflected in legislation.
Overall, beekeepers are negotiating satisfactory agreements through
industry consultative committees. These agreements need to be supported
by legislation. Without reasonable access, the industry could not survive
in its present form. What effects do honey bees have on native plants and animals? The evidence so far suggests that the effects on insect pollinators and on competition with fauna for nesting hollows are either absent or minor. Some studies show that bird behaviour, seed set and pollination may be affected by honey bees under some circumstances - if the nectar resource is limiting. However no adverse effects of any kind have been demonstrated in studies where the resource is not limiting. This is important because the migratory commercial beekeeping industry seeks to operate in native forests including conserved areas under conditions of excess resource. Policy makers also need to distinguish
between possible effects of feral and managed honey bee populations.
Feral honey bees are uncontrolled, self-sustaining, ubiquitous and sometimes
present in high numbers. Managed honey bees are moved regularly to harvest
excess honeyflows and their numbers and location are controlled by beekeepers
and public land managers. Can honey be used to kill bacteria? The development of honey as a therapeutic
agent is an exciting prospect for the industry in Australia. It has
long been known that honey has anti-bacterial properties and is useful
in the treatment of wounds, burns, ulcers and other complaints in humans.
Researchers here and overseas are putting effort into developing treatments
and understanding the factors which provide the anti-bacterial activity,
and into assessing which honeys possess the most therapeutic values.
Finally, is the industry at risk from exotic pests and diseases? The industry is under significant threat from several exotic pests and diseases. Arguably the worst is the Varroa mite Varroa jacobsoni which originated on the Asian honey bee Apis cerana in the Indonesian Archipelago and transferred to the introduced European honey bee Apis mellifera. The mite spread westward into the Asian and European continents and has recently entered North America and the United Kingdom. It has decimated domestic and feral honey bee populations. Varroa has been found in the northern islands of the Torres Strait where it has been contained by strenuous quarantine action. The Honeybee Tracheal mite Acarapis woodii, Asian mite Tropilaelaps clareae and several lesser fungal and bacterial diseases should also be excluded. The Asian mite could be as severe as Varroa. The greatest economic impact of either of these mites would be on the agricultural and horticultural industries of Australia which depend on effective insect pollination for maximum production. 2. INTRODUCTION Beekeeping is a unique primary industry. Its basic resources - nectar and pollen -are rarely owned by the beekeeper. Unlike other primary producers, beekeepers require virtually no land of their own. Beekeeping "land" takes the form of small apiary sites which are leased from private landholders or public authorities. Even large commercial beekeepers require and own only small rural allotments of 1 ha to 5 ha bordering substantial rural towns or cities. The economic base for beekeeping is held in highly depreciating materials such as hives and machinery and sheds. This contrasts starkly with land owning farmers who have, in the land, a stable or appreciating asset. Beekeeping requires an affinity with the land and a detailed knowledge of the complicated behaviour of the honey bee itself, the plants which provide the resource, nature conservation and agricultural production. One of the major skills in beekeeping is to know several months ahead the yield potential of favourable floral resources of nectar and pollen. This kind of knowledge is acquired largely by experience and is often passed from generation to generation. The industry finds itself under increasing pressure on a number of fronts. The Australian community is becoming more concerned about conservation of remaining forests and the Commonwealth and state governments are taking steps to conserve the resource for future generations. Traditional access by beekeepers to forests is being questioned and sometimes restricted because honey bees are not native to Australia. The industry is also under threat from a number of exotic pests and diseases which have caused extensive damage overseas. Agriculture, while often providing floral resources, also competes when floral resources are destroyed by land clearing and herbicide applications and when chemicals are applied to crops. Eucalypt woodland dieback, salting, pine plantations on public land, reduced flooding regimes on some major river systems and urban sprawl are additional factors contributing to pressures on the viability and flexibility of beekeeping in Australia. The federal and state organisations representing the interests of beekeepers must address these issues. This requires access to accurate and up-to-date information on the industry and its impacts. Much of this information is available in reports and publications produced by state departments, research organisations and the various industry sectors. However it is scattered widely. The aim of this study is to collect this information in a form which is useful to the industry and its stakeholders. The Federal Council of Australian Apiarists’ Associations has commissioned this study in order to provide a summary of information relevant to a discussion of the issues facing the beekeeping industry in Australia. The specific aims are to:
To overcome these anomalies, production was measured in different ways - from the ABS statistics, from voluntary levies paid on production, from the number of hives and average production per hive, and from the records of the major packers. The information on ecological effects is based on published reports. This issue has had a high profile in Australia and several major reviews have been prepared by individual researchers or commissioned by the (then) Australian Nature Conservation Agency. Published reports and industry estimates were used to estimate the value of pollination. This is a significant topic because it totally overshadows the value of production - by a factor of at least 20:1 - and is often overlooked when the total value of the industry is being considered. Although a great deal of information was available, the authors have sometimes been required to make estimates on the best data available. This report states when, how and why particular estimates were made. As time passes, more information will
become available. The authors hope that this report will be a "living"
document which can be updated to retain its usefulness for many years
to come. 3. THE BEEKEEPING INDUSTRY
IN AUSTRALIA 3.1 Summary Managed honey bees are found in all States of Australia, although little honey is produced from the Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory. A wide range of Australian flora produces good quantities of nectar, as do many exotic flora, including important food and pasture crops. There are around 673,000 registered
hives in Australia, producing not only honey and beeswax but also live
bees (queens and package bees), and other products such as pollen and
royal jelly. Around 467,000 hives are operated by beekeepers with a
minimum of 200 hives, and these are considered to represent the commercial
industry. It is estimated that an average of at least 30,000 tonnes
of honey are produced each year in Australia, with nearly 45% of this
total coming from NSW. Between 9,000 and 12,000 tonnes of honey are
exported each year. 3.2 Introduction The first successful introduction of honey bees (Apis mellifera) to Australia took place in 1822. Honey bees were able to provide settlers with the important food and food sweetener used by the people of the Old World for centuries. Honey bees were also used to pollinate crops, most of which were introduced. Australian flora were found to produce good quantities of nectar, and honey bees quickly naturalised throughout Australian native forest systems by the mid-1800’s. As the interior of the continent was opened up by settlers, they were able to draw stocks of honey bees from the feral population or obtain hives from beekeepers to establish small apiaries, and the Australian honey industry became established. There are currently around 673,000 registered hives in Australia, with an unknown number of hives estimated to be in use but not registered. Actual numbers vary from year to year, depending on seasonal conditions and relative price movements in the industry’s major products. These major products are : - honey - beeswax. In addition, specialised segments of the industry concentrate beekeeping activities towards the production of : - queen bees - package bees - pollen - royal jelly - propolis - bee venom. The economic dimensions of the industry,
and the direct and indirect impacts that beekeeping has at a State and
sector level, are discussed in Chapter 4. 3.3 Snapshot of industry dimensions Data on hive registrations provides an indication of the total size of the industry, which is summarised in the following Table 1. These data have been sourced from registration data held by most State regulatory bodies (generally the Departments of Agriculture, or equivalent). No data has been recorded for the Australian Capital Territory, nor for the Northern Territory, as the beekeeping industry is not considered to have a significant presence in either region. It is recognised that a number of hives
are operated by part-time and "hobby" beekeepers, with total numbers
of hives operated by these individuals being insufficient to support
a full-time activity. This production may be significant. In Western
Australia, for example, non-commercial beekeepers produce about 23%
of the state’s honey production. This analysis has assumed that those
beekeepers operating a minimum of 200 hives can be considered as "commercial"
operators in the industry. Table 1 |
| State |
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| NSW
Queensland Victoria South Australia Western Australia Tasmania AUSTRALIA |
78,857 73,057 59,700 36,837 9,184 466,684 |
130,723 119,551 77,100 52,328 15,213 672,557 |
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Tasmanian data from the industry (Tasmanian Beekeepers’ Association) An assessment has been made of the total production of the industry, drawing on a number of sources, to provide an indication of the dimensions of beekeeping activity in Australia. i) Based on ABS data : data compiled by the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) indicates total production of honey of just under 19,000 tonnes in 1994/95. However, these data are gathered only from beekeepers operating more than 320 hives, which excludes at least one-third of production. Industry opinion is that the ABS data has long been at variance with data compiled by the Australian Horticultural Corporation (AHC), which is based on levies paid (see below). Production data from this source is therefore only partial, and must be considered as very conservative. ii) Based on levies paid : Beekeepers pay a research levy on honey production to the (Federal) Department of Primary Industries and Energy. Production must be above a minimum level (600 kg per annum) before the levy is payable - although a levy is paid on smaller quantities if supplied to a packer. In 1995/96, total levies were paid on the production of around 26,000 tonnes of honey. In addition to production below the minimum level, it is acknowledged that levies are not paid on all honey production, either because hives are not registered and/or because not all production is declared for the purposes of levy assessment. Assuming that 12% to 15% more honey is produced (industry estimate) than is subject to levy, then total levy payments could suggest total production in the order of 29,000 to 30,000 tonnes, as a minimum. iii) Based on honey receivals : the largest honey packer in Australia, Capilano, is reported to account for around 67% of all sales of honey in Australia (Capilano, personal communication). Total honey receivals by Capilano in 1996 (Capilano data provided) were just under 20,000 tonnes - which suggests total Australian production could be in the order of 31,000 tonnes. iv) Based on numbers of hives : Production can be estimated from the number of hives and production per hive. Larger commercial operators would expect to produce significantly higher volumes of honey per hive per year than the non-commercial operators, with figures from Western Australia (Manning 1992) putting average production at 27% to 60% higher for commercial operators on public land and private property respectively. Commercial operators are reported to produce up to 145 kg of honey per hive per year (Manning 1992). Figures from the Queensland beekeeping industry (personal communication) indicate that 5-year average production levels of 75 kg per hive per year can be expected. Based on the number of commercial hives (i.e., those operated by beekeepers with more than 200 hives), and assuming that average annual production per hive is around 70 kg, then total production of honey in Australia is around 32,675 tonnes. If production per hive averages 80 kg, then total honey annual production would be in the order of 37,335 tonnes. If all hives (commercial and hobby) are assumed to produce 50 kg of honey per year, then total honey production in Australia could be around 33,627 tonnes. This comparison would suggest that honey production in Australia is at least 30,000 tonnes per annum. While the number of hives could well vary from year to year, variation will also occur in average production levels per hive (depending on seasonal conditions), so that actual honey production in any one year could well be above or below this estimate. Data from Capilano indicates that although there is some fluctuation between total receivals from year to year (in response to changing seasonal conditions), average levels of production over the last twenty years have remained fairly constant. The use of hive numbers as the basis for the assessment of honey production would appear to be justified by other possible derivations of production. This estimate can be considered conservative, with actual production likely to be higher because - annual production levels per hive of just 70 kg have been used - actual production levels of up to 130 kg have been reported by some producers, and it is considered that an average of 100 kg could be achieved by most commercial operators. In Western Australia, annual hive production levels of 200 kg are quite common (Manning 1996). - the large number of unregistered hives, and the fact that all production from beekeepers with less than 200 hives, has been excluded from the assessment. Given these conservative assumptions, it is possible that total production of honey in Australia could be higher than the 32,000 tonnes per annum figure quoted. If less conservative assumptions are made, then total production could even be in the order of : - 47,000 tonnes, if an average of 70 kg is produced by all registered hives, which still excludes production from unregistered hives - 53,000 tonnes, if all commercial operators produce an average of 100 kg per hive, with the other hives producing an average amount 30 kg each, still excluding production from unregistered hives. This analysis has therefore used an estimate of annual production of around 32,675 tonnes of honey, based on hive numbers (those operated by beekeepers with more than 200 hives) and an annual average production per hive of 70 kg. 3.4 Industry by State Use of data on the number of hives as a source of estimates of total honey production can then be used to derive estimates of production from each State of Australia. Table 2 indicates a conservative estimate of total production of honey, by State. Table 2 |
| State |
|
|
| NSW
Queensland Victoria South Australia Western Australia Tasmania AUSTRALIA |
5,520 5,115 4,180 2,580 645 32,675 |
16.9 15.6 12.8 7.9 2.0 100.0 |
| New South Wales is clearly the
largest single source of honey in Australia. However, as described in
Chapter 4, the beekeeping industry in other States is also significant,
in terms of the direct and indirect economic impact generated.
3.5 Industry by sector The overall apiary industry should be considered in terms of a number of sectors, as follows : ii) Queen and package bee producers.
In commercial honey production, the usual practice is to replace the
queen bee in a hive every eighteen months. While half of the total
replacement queen requirement is usually met by breeding within the
commercial operation, the remaining queens are purchased from specialist
breeders. On this basis, and assuming a total population of 467,000
commercial hives (see Table 1), an annual demand for around 155,670
queen bees each year can be estimated. In addition, specialist operators
provide entire colonies, termed package bees, for supply to producers
who require re-stocking - with most demand for package bees now coming
from overseas markets. iii) Honey packers. Most
commercial honey producers are contracted to supply annual volumes
of honey to major packers. In Australia, the major packer is Capilano
Honey Limited (Capilano). The estimated market share of the national
grocery honey market is : Leabrook Farms 10.6% Other brands 8.3% Housebrand/generics 39.4% The two principal packers also provide the majority of the generic products. Capilano’s share of the total domestic market is in the order of 67%. The two major packers also export an increasing volume of honey to overseas markets - both in bulk, and in retail packs. Around 10% of Capilano’s total revenue came from retail packed exports in 1996, with strong growth in this sector during the year. iv) Exports. Exports of
Australian honey are an important segment of the total market, as indicated
in Table 3. Exports of honey have averaged over 10,000 tonnes per annum
over recent years, representing between 25% and 30% of estimated total
production. Table 3 |
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|
|
|
1991/92 1992/93 1993/94 1994/95 1995/96 1996/97 (e) |
9,036.1 9,108.3 13,019.8 9,677.7 9,756.4 11,686.2 |
295.9 365.7 382.9 228.9 338.5 369.4 |
| (e) estimated annual total, on basis of
10-month data from July 96 to April 97. Source : ABS It is clear that the Australian bee-keeping industry has a major presence in all States of Australia. Economic impacts generated by support
activities, and as a result of services provided by the apiary industry,
are outlined in Chapter 4. Chapter 5 outlines the economic impacts
generated as a result of the pollination services provided by managed
honey bees. ABS (1994/95) Australian production of honey (volume and value), by States, Unpublished data purchased from the Australian Bureau of Statistics, Canberra. Capilano Annual Report, 1996. Capilano Honey Limited, Brisbane. Manning, R (1992). Honey production, economic value and geographical significance of apiary sites in Western Australia. Final Report for the Honeybee Research and Development Council Project DAW 3H. Manning, R (1996). Evaluation of
the Western Australia queen bee breeding program. Australian Journal
of Experimental Agriculture 36 - 513 -518. 4.1 Summary Major items of expenditure for the industry are labour and transport – with fuel being the largest single component of the latter. It is estimated that around 80% of income (turnover) is spent on costs of production, which means that much of the income generated by the sale of honey and other products remains in rural areas of Australia. Other supply sectors are located throughout Australia. Pollination services are provided by honey bees. Some services are paid for, but overall this source of income for beekeepers is very minor when compared to income from honey and other products. The total value of pollination services incidentally provided by bees, which is very much larger than the price paid for such services, is discussed in detail in Chapter 5. The level of pollination services provided by industry to agriculture and horticulture is expected to increase significantly. The development of honey as a therapeutic agent is an exciting development which could help the industry in Australia in the future. It has long been known that honey has anti-bacterial properties and is useful in the treatment of wounds, burns, ulcers and other complaints in humans. Researchers here and overseas are putting effort into developing treatments and understanding the factors which provide the anti-bacterial activity. Several exotic pests and diseases pose significant threats to the economic well-being of the industry. Probably the worst is the Varroa mite which is carried on an Asian honey bee (Apis cerana) which has been found in the Torres Strait and is being excluded now by quarantine action. Varroa mites would be expected to decimate feral honey bee populations and reduce the profitability of managed honey bees, as it has done in north America and Europe. Pollination of crops - worth in the order of $1.2 billion - would be severely affected. There are also other mites, fungal and bacterial diseases which should be excluded. 4.2 Introduction i) the gross value of production generated by the industry. This production provides the direct economic role of the industry, and is often considered as the sole source of economic impact. The gross value of production includes not only the value of honey produced, but also the value of beeswax, queen and package bees, and other products such as pollen, royal jelly, bee venom, and propolis. ii) the stimulation of demand from other linked (mainly supply) sectors. This type of impact is often referred to as the multiplier, or “flow-on” effect, and includes the value of output (and employment, wages, value-added, etc.,) that is produced by all sectors either providing goods and services to the beekeeping industry, or receiving goods and services from the industry. iii) the crop pollination services provided by honey bees. Many agricultural sectors, particularly those involved in the production of horticultural commodities such as fruit, depend heavily on insect pollination to maximise yields. Some pollination services are paid, with beekeepers receiving income from placing hives adjacent to flowering crops. While some honey may also be obtained (e.g., from clovers), this is not often the case - in crops such as fruit and nut trees, no honey is obtained.. However, the large majority of pollination services are unpaid (incidental pollination), and represent a beneficial externality derived from beekeeping activities. Each of these three types of impact is outlined in this chapter. Further discussion on the impacts of the beekeeping industry which are imparted via the pollination services provided is presented in Chapter 5. 4.3 Direct impact of industry -
gross value of production - total annual production of around 32,000 tonnes (which has been demonstrated in Chapter 3 to be conservative), and - an average price received of $1.50/kg honey in all States except Tasmania, where an average price of $2.00/kg is received, reflecting the higher value of leatherwood honey produced in that State. This average value of $1.50/kg can be compared to published figures such as ABS export unit values in 1995/96 (ABS trade data) of $2.07/kg, and $2.40/kg in 1996/97 (estimate based on 10 month data). However, these unit values are assumed to include a component for transport and packing, so that farm-gate values would be lower. Data from Capilano (Annual Report, 1996) indicate that the average price paid for honey received in 1996 was $1.50/kg, and $1.29 in 1995. The ABS production data, while acknowledged as under-reporting total production, indicates an average unit value of $1.31 for Australia in 1994/95 - which is close to the Capilano 1995 figure. The ABS data also indicates that average prices received in Tasmania were higher than other States, at $2.01/kg. Farm gate average values for honey in 1997 may be higher than $1.50/kg, which would suggest that gross value of production from the honey sector could be higher than $49 million. ii) Beeswax. Beeswax is a substance secreted by the worker bees. It is recovered by beekeepers primarily from honey comb cappings, and also from cull combs and wax pieces. Beeswax is used in certain pharmaceutical and cosmetic preparations, as a base for polishes and some ointments, for candles - and for comb foundation for beekeeping. It has the highest melting point of natural waxes, and can be sold in either the raw or refined form. Commercial beeswax is generally refined for sale by a manufacturer of apiary products. Production of beeswax is closely related to honey production, and Australia produces a surplus which is exported. Australian beeswax is reported (industry sources) to command premium prices on the world market, because of its freedom from adulteration and chemical residues. As indicated in Chapter 3, it has been estimated that total output of beeswax in Australia is around 545 tonnes per annum. The ABS production data indicates a unit value for this production of around $4.33/kg. for 1994/95, but industry opinion is that this average should be assumed at $6.00/kg for 1996 (Queensland Beekeepers’ Association). Applying this unit value to the assumed production volume suggests a total Australian farm-gate value of $3.3 million for beeswax. iii) Live bees. The production of queen bees, and of entire colonies of bees, is the main diversification available to beekeepers. The queen bee industry is dependent on the existence of a profitable honey industry in Australia, and on an export market to buy queens at a period when little or no sales are available in Australia. The Australian market tends to be active in the spring period between early September and the middle of November, with spasmodic demand through to the end of March. Overseas countries tend to require queens over a longer period, from December to May/June. As outlined in Chapter 3, Australian demand for queen bees is estimated at around 155,670 per annum - at an average price of $9/queen, this represents a farm-gate value of around $1.5 million. This is a conservative figure because export sales - estimated by industry sources to be $0.75 million - are not recorded separately and have not been added. Live bee exports is a potential growth area for the Australian beekeeping industry, as further markets develop. Package bees and nucleus colonies are other forms of live bee production, and are sold both within Australia and overseas. Again, data on total value of production for this sector of the industry is not available, and has been estimated on the basis of known production. The total value of this sector has been assumed to be $2.25 million, which is almost certainly an under-estimate, but which has been used as a conservative minimum iv) Other products. In addition to honey and wax, active beehives are also a source of other products. These include : - Royal Jelly - a milky white smooth jelly secreted by nurse bees, used to feed developing queen larvae and young worker bee larvae. The production of royal jelly is a very specialised procedure, and flora conditions must be ideal before production can be considered. Royal jelly is used as tablets, or mixed into creams and shampoos. Most royal jelly sold in Australia is imported, either in bulk (which is often re-packed for export) or pre-packed. Very few beekeepers produce royal jelly for re-sale, as the imported product is much cheaper. - Propolis - a by-product of the bee hive. It originates as a gum secretion gathered by bees from a variety of plants, and can vary in colour depending on the plant species of origin. Propolis has remarkable therapeutic qualities, and is much sought after in some countries for the treatment of a range of human ailments, and for cosmetic purposes. It is used by honey bees as an antiseptic to varnish the interior of honey comb cells used by the hive to rear young brood, to seal cracks in the hive from the winter chill, and for general hive cleanliness purposes. Propolis is extensively harvested by beekeepers in Europe. Few Australian beekeepers engage in the commercial production of propolis, although a potential exists, because the practice is time-consuming. The primary focus of Australian apiarists remains the more rewarding production of honey and related products such as beeswax. - Bee venom - collected by stimulating bees with a mild electric current. The venom is processed, and used in the preparation of pharmaceutical materials. It can be used to detect hypersensitivity or allergic reaction to bee stings. It is not currently produced in Australia, but is imported (mainly from Romania). - Pollen - can also be harvested by beekeepers, at a rate of around 7-10 kgs per hive per year. Pollen is used by bee colonies as a source of protein, but harvesting pollen by the beekeeper requires detailed knowledge of resources, hive management, species flowering variations and timing, and hive response to different honeys and pollens. Pollen is collected via specialised traps fitted to the hives, and must be processed rapidly after collection (usually via freezing or drying) to avoid excessive moisture absorption and fermentation. Many beekeepers harvest pollen to feed back to their hives during periods of natural pollen deficiency. The commercial production of these products is not widely undertaken in Australia. Based on industry comment, it has been assumed that the total value of production from this sector is in the order of $0.3 million per annum. v) Paid pollination services. Some
beekeepers receive payment for placing hives in close proximity to flowering
crops, according to contractual arrangements with farmers. Rates for
pollination services in inland Australia varied between $25 and $35
per hive in 1996, with variations between crops. Some rates in
W.A. (W.A.A.F.) have been reported as high as $78 per hive for 1997.
It has been estimated that at least $2.9 million is received by the
industry in this way, based on total payments received for pollination
services in Tasmania (Gifford, 1989), and multiplied up to an Australian
figure by numbers of hives. However, this is likely to be a significant underestimation, as other States such as South Australia depend heavily on bee pollination (and pay for such services) for clover and lucerne seed production, as well as for fruit production. Estimates prepared in S.A. (industry) indicate that paid pollination services could amount to as much as $4.7 million per year. As discussed in Chapter 5, the total value of all pollination services is considerably larger than the above estimate of direct income received from such services. As a result of this total production, the direct impact of the beekeeping industry in Australia is likely to be in the order of at least $60 million. This is based on 1996 data – the total gross value of production could possibly be higher than this in 1997, as a result of movements in honey prices, and an increase in rates paid for pollination services. In a recent paper, Gill (1997) provides an estimate of $65 million for the total direct income value of the honey industry in Australia. However, this (1996) estimate correlates reasonably well with the RIRDC estimate of a total value of $55 million for the industry (RIRDC, Program Plans and Guidelines for Researchers, 1997-98). It should be noted that this estimate relates to the gross (farm gate) value of production, and excludes the value-added component introduced by packers and retailers. It has been concluded that the direct economic impact of the honey industry is therefore between $60 and $65 million per annum. When the significance of paid pollination services in South Australia is taken into consideration, the higher estimate of $65 million would appear well justified. The following Table 4 summarises the components of this total, as described in the preceding discussion of the value of output from each of the defined sectors of the industry. Value of production: Australia (All sectors of the industry) |
|
|
( million/yr.) |
| Honey (including
comb sales)
Beeswax Live bees Other products Paid pollination services TOTAL DIRECT IMPACT |
$ 3.3 $ 3.8 $ 0.3 $ 2.9 $60.1 |
| 4.3.2 By State
Having prepared an estimate of the total value of production (and thus direct impact) for the beekeeping industry in Australia, an estimate has then been made of the share of this total production contributed by each State. This estimate is based on honey production, which in turn (see Chapter 3) is based on the numbers of hives in each State. Total honey production accounts for more than 80% of the total direct impact of the industry, and so is by far the largest single component. As indicated in Chapter 3, the greatest number of hives is in NSW, and so the greatest value of production is also from NSW. Value of industry production, Australia : by State |
| State |
($ mill./yr.) |
|
| NSW
Queensland Victoria South Australia Western Australia Tasmania AUSTRALIA |
8.4 7.7 6.3 3.9 1.3 49.8 |
10.1 9.4 7.6 4.7 1.5 60.1 |
| However, the contribution of
the different states, as shown in Table 5, thus represents the
State of registration of hives. Actual production values which
can be attributed to each State may be very different, as :
- bees in border areas may access floral resources from across a border - honey from one State may be packed and/or processed in another State. A brief comment on the industry in each State follows : New South Wales. Nearly 45% of all Australian honey production comes from New South Wales. In value terms (given the higher average value attributed to Tasmanian honey), NSW accounts for a slightly lower share - but is still by far the largest single State in terms of the overall value of the industry. Table 5 has indicated that the direct impact of the industry in NSW is nearly $27 million. As indicated in Chapter 5, paid pollination services are also important in NSW, with extensive fruit and vegetable production, as well as seed production, in certain areas of the State. Queensland. The honey bee industry is considered as important to Queensland, not only for its annual production of honey and beeswax, but also for improving pollination of high value crops. The DPI has estimated that the industry has a direct impact of around $4 million, whereas the Queensland Beekeepers’ Association has estimated a total farm gate value of over $14 million (including paid pollination services), but with both estimates excluding unpaid pollination benefits. For the purposes of this study, a total value of just over $10 million has been assessed for the direct impact of the industry in Queensland - also excluding unpaid pollination services. Victoria. The study has assessed the total value of the industry in Victoria at around $9.5 million. This is much the same level as has been assessed for Queensland, and is much lower than NSW. However, given the importance of the fruit industry (including citrus) to Victoria, the unpaid pollination services provided by the beekeeping industry would provide a greater economic impact than this direct impact would suggest. South Australia. The South Australian industry produces around 13% of all honey produced in Australia. Surveys within the State (Dept. Primary Industry, S.A.) have indicated that there are 53 beekeepers who own more than 500 hives, and 870 with fewer than 200 hives. Again, crop pollination services provided by managed bees are considered to be the most important economic value of the industry, with crops such as almonds, lucerne, vegetable seeds, and stone and pome fruits relying on pollination by bees. The DPI (SA) estimates the value of honey production at between $4.2 million and $7.3 million per annum, depending on season, which is consistent (as a range) with this study’s estimate of $6.3 million for honey (and comb) production. However, the SA industry estimates that a total of $4.7 million is paid for pollination services provided by managed honey bees in the State. This would be additional to the estimate for honey production, suggesting a total output figure of $12 million for the industry in this State. Western Australia. Honey prices and hive production in Western Australia are not considered likely to increase markedly in coming years. However, the apiculture industry in the State is considered (by Agriculture W.A.) to have the opportunity to improve its performance through the production of high quality, disease free products, and by diversifying into the production of package bees, and pollination services to benefit the horticulture and oilseeds industries and improve returns to beekeepers. This study has estimated the total value of production of the WA industry at $4.7 million. Tasmania. Forestry Tasmania
has recognised bee-keeping is an important industry in Tasmania, as
set out in the Forestry Tasmania document "Guidelines to facilitate
Apiculture on State Forest" (1994). This study has estimated that the
industry produced output of around $1.5 million for the State.
There are likely to be close links between the honey industry and tourism
in Tasmania, with the State’s production of leatherwood honey catering
to a "boutique" segment of the market. Given the higher prices paid
for leatherwood honey, and the importance of paid pollination services
in the State, the total value of the Tasmanian industry is likely to
be considerably higher than this estimate. 4.4 Other linked sectors - the indirect impact of industry It is generally acknowledged that any economic activity will have impacts wider than the sector within which the activity itself takes place, as a result of the demand for goods and services generated by the activity in question, and of the consumption expenditure which results from employees disposing of their wages. This inter-relationship between different sectors of the economy creates the so-called multiplier or "flow-on" effect. Research undertaken for this study has not been able to identify any assessments which have been made to quantify this relationship between activity in the beekeeping industry and the wider economy. As a result, it is not possible to provide any numeric estimate of the indirect impact that the industry might have on the wider economy. However, it is possible to prepare some estimates of the likely magnitude of some of the flow-on effects from operations of the industry, with such estimates being presented in section 4.4.1 below. It is also possible to outline some of the sectors which receive the most direct impact from activities within the industry, in terms of purchases of supply materials, as presented in section 4.4.2. 4.4.1 Flow-on effects from beekeeping industry Various studies have examined the costs involved in a commercial beekeeping operation. These include : - An economic survey of the Honey Industry in Victoria, 1980-81 (RIRDC) - Investing in Commercial Honey production : The 4th. Mansfield report (1996), Tamworth branch, NSWAA. All these studies concluded that transport
(including fuel) and labour are the most significant components
of costs. This has been confirmed by interviews conducted with selected
individual beekeepers conducted during the course of this study. The
next largest category of expenditure is equipment required to process
honey. Expenditure on transport and labour could comprise around $30
to $35 million per annum, all of which would be spent in the rural regions
where the industry is based. The beekeeping industry is therefore making
a substantial contribution to economic activity in such rural areas
of Australia. 4.4.2 Supply industries There are a number of specialist industries which operate solely (or predominantly) to supply requisites to the beekeeping industry. While not a part of the industry per se, the supply industries would not be operating in their current form were it not for the activities of the beekeeping industry. While not quantified as a part of the beekeeping industry, their existence is certainly a part of the indirect economic impact generated by the industry. This "supply" sector includes : ii) Extractor/uncapping machinery - any company skilled in the production of stainless steel equipment for the food industry would be capable of manufacturing the machinery required to "uncap" combs, and extract honey. However, Australian operators tend to have specialised in the manufacture of equipment for the beekeeping industry - such as Bee Quip in W.A., Blenkiron, Vic., Superior Bee Supplies, Qld and Penders in NSW. iii) Packers' equipment - bottles and bottling equipment are required by packers. In addition, drum manufacturers provide the special galvanised drum, made with side bung, that is not generally available from other sources for producers and packers. A gradual change to plastic drums is taking place, with intermediate bulk containers, of pallet size being used which hold more honey than do the traditional drums. iv) Heat source - every honey producer requires a steam or hot water boiler to generate steam, and hot water, for processing honey and wax. While not requiring a specialised manufacturing activity, the beekeeping industry generates a demand for such equipment. v) Transport/handling equipment - all commercial beekeepers must purchase trucks and utilities for transporting and servicing hives. Many also own bob-cats and/or front end loaders for loading hives, on pallets, and loading drums or use other forms of mechanisation. vi) Other equipment - beekeepers also have a need for other equipment such as electric generators, caravans, and mobile extracting units. While the first two items (as for heat sources) do not require a specialised manufacturing activity, expenditure by the beekeeping industry can provide an important source of demand. vii) Quality Assurance - beekeepers and packers are increasingly introducing quality assured premises and equipment for handling honey, as a food product for human consumption. Again, this is not necessarily a specialised activity unique to the industry, but represents an additional demand for existing services. 4.5 Crop pollination services provided by honey bees Chapter 5 sets out a detailed discussion on the value of the (unpaid) pollination services provided by managed bees, as a result of the operations of the beekeeping industry. However, this assessment of the economic role of the industry would be incomplete without reference to the dimensions of this impact, as assessed by others. Much of the Australian assessment in this area has been conducted by Gill, who has produced many papers on this subject (see bibliography). Gill acknowledges the difficulties inherent in preparing an assessment of these pollination values, but has concluded that the value to society of the pollination services market as it is currently structured in Australia is likely to range between $605.84 million and $1.21 billion per annum (estimates as at 1989). This figure represents the increased value of crop production resulting from the pollination activities of honey bees – over and above the value of production that would occur in the absence of this pollination activity. The industry, working with various Government agencies, has prepared some estimates at a State level. The basis for these estimates, and the considered opinion developed as a result of this study, are also presented in Chapter 5. These State estimates range as follows : In Tasmania, the value of agricultural crops using pollination services provided by apiarists has been estimated to be $111 million annually. In South Australia and Victoria, the estimates of the "true value" of the apiary industry to agriculture are $100 million and $145 million respectively. Other States have yet to prepare an equivalent assessment of the value added to agricultural and horticultural production as a result of the incidental pollination activities of honey bees. Chapter 5 presents a summary of a consistent approach, across all States of Australia, together with a description of the rationale used to prepare this overall assessment. In summary, Gill’s estimate of a figure ranging up to $1.21 billion provides an indication of the very important economic role of the beekeeping industry at the national level. 4.6 Honey as a therapeutic agent Developing extra uses for apiary products could assist the development of the beekeeping industry. One of the more interesting features of honey is that it has anti-bacterial properties. It has well-established uses in ancient and traditional medicine, and is now being re-discovered as a treatment for wounds, burns, skin ulcers and gastroenteritis. There are reports that inflammation, swelling and pain are reduced and that wounds heal more quickly with minimal scarring. The international research community is investigating these reports and conducting laboratory and clinical tests to develop the technology for use in medical practice. The anti-bacterial activity of honey is due to several factors including water content, acidity and a natural antibacterial agent called hydrogen peroxide which is formed by enzyme activity in the honey. However different honeys vary greatly in their anti-bacterial activity, depending mainly on the floral source. The more anti-bacterial honeys appear to have at least one additional natural factor which is not fully understood. Research is being concentrated on these active honeys and how they work. Manuka honey from a species of Leptospermum
(L scoparium) in New Zealand has a high anti-bacterial activity.
In Australia, recent work funded by the Rural Industries Research and
Development Corporation and the honey bee industry has confirmed that
several Australian honeys have activities similar to Manuka. This work
is continuing. These are exciting developments for the beekeeping industry
and medicine alike, particularly if antibiotic-resistant bacteria like
golden staph can be controlled. 4.7 Quarantine Most of Australia’s crops and livestock, including honey bees, were introduced with European settlement within the last 200 years. While many pests and diseases arrived at the same time or have appeared since, we are still free of many serious exotic problems. As an island continent, Australia has a better-than-average chance of maintaining its disease-free status which affects both production costs and export markets. However we remain vulnerable, particularly from the near north, as the recent entry of several exotic horticultural pests demonstrates. Several threats face beekeepers in Australia now. The worst is probably Varroa mite (V. jacobsoni) which is carried on Asian honey bees Apis cerana and European honey bees A. mellifera to the immediate north of Australia. Apis cerana was tracked by Australian quarantine authorities as it moved from Irian Jaya through Papua New Guinea into Torres Strait at the rate of several hundred kilometres per year. Swift action by both the Australian Quarantine Inspection Service and the beekeeping industry contained the incursion to the most northern Islands of the Torres Strait region. Honey bees (Apis mellifera) in PNG carry another exotic mite - the Asian mite Tropilaelaps clareae - which may well cause as much damage as Varroa. Both mites attack honey bee adults and larvae. Both honey bees to Australia’s north also carry the serious tracheal mite Acarapis woodii which is still exotic to Australia. The potential for damage by exotic mites can be judged by recent experience in North America. Varroa and the tracheal mite Acarapis woodii are decimating honey bees in an incursion which has been sweeping north from Florida since about 1987. One report estimates the death of almost all feral honey bees and about 60 percent of managed bees from mites. A pollination crisis of some magnitude is occurring in North America as a result. If the feral and managed honey bee population in Australia should become decimated by exotic mites, the effect on agriculture would be dramatic because of the loss of pollination services. Chapter 7 indicates the benefit of pollination to Australia to be in the order of $1.2 billion per year. Another problem is that the chemicals used for mite control could compromise Australia’s reputation as a supplier of "clean" honey and beeswax products. Yet another threat is the African honey bee, Apis mellifera scutellata, a honey bee subspecies which is notoriously aggressive. It crosses readily with the European honey bee producing Africanised offspring which are also unacceptably aggressive. Although European Foul Brood (Melissococcus pluton) was first identified in 1977 and chalk brood (Ascosphaeraapis) in 1993, there are still other exotic diseases which are absent from Australia. The industry is concerned that these diseases and other pests like mites and African honey bees could be introduced illegally with queens, packaged bees or leaf-cutting bees. Also, Australia has an eradication program for American Foul Brood (Paenibacillus larvae) which could be compromised by contaminated imported honey. 4.8 References Gill, R (1997) Beekeeping and Secure Access to Public Land – how it benefits the industry and society. A report for the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation and the Honeybee Industries Research and Development Council of Australia. RIRDC Research Paper Series no 97/16. Manning, R (1992) Honey production, economic value and geographical significance of apiary sites in Western Australia. Final Report for the Honeybee Research and Development Council Project DAW 3H.
5.1 Summary This chapter provides an assessment of the benefits derived from pollination services provided by honey bees. These benefits are represented by the value of agricultural production that occurs because of pollination by bees. For some crops (such as almonds) very little fruit would set without bee pollination, while for others, production would still occur without bees, but quality and yield are increased as a result of bee pollination. High seed set through adequate fertilisation of multi-seeded fruit provides a beneficial effect on fruit size and shape. The benefits of bee pollination accrue to the agricultural sector, and via their direct value (domestic and export), flow-on effects, and the utility value of food and fibre produced, to the entire Australian community. Approaches to estimating the Australia-wide benefit of pollination are reviewed, and equivalent estimates for the value of pollination in each State, based on this approach, are presented. Estimates of around $1.2 billion, based on studies published by Gill in 1989, have generally been accepted as representing the pollination benefits for Australia as a whole. The bee industry in some States has worked with relevant Departments of Agriculture to prepare their own estimates of pollination values. Using a consistent approach over all States, this study has demonstrated that :
5.2 The need for pollination services In the context of this examination, pollination refers to the fertilisation of flowering plants through transfer of pollen by honey bees. While other agents can also act as plant pollinators, honey bees are the most significant pollinators of some crops because of the efficiency of foraging activities of bees, and the number (density) of bees under managed conditions which can be applied to a crop. The ability to ensure effective pollination is a significant constraint to many growers of fruit, nut, vegetable, and field crops (Jones, 1995), with many millions of dollars of potential domestic and export crop production being lost annually. The agricultural industry considers a strong, viable beekeeping industry to be vital for the maintenance of successful fruit, vegetable, nut and other crop production, as well as seed production. The food chain introduced since the establishment of European settlement is almost entirely exotic, with 65% of the food crops introduced requiring honey-bee pollination (Jones, 1995). The effective pollination of these crops is therefore vitally important to the on-going ability of Australian agriculture to provide food for the population, and to generate export income via the sale of food and fibre commodities overseas. In the USA, it has been estimated that perhaps one-third of the total human diet is dependent, directly or indirectly, on insect-pollinated plants. Another value of pollination relates to its effect on quality and efficiency of crop production. Inadequate pollination can cause reduced yields, delayed yields, and losses via inferior (unmarketable) fruit. Crop production, and thus agricultural incomes, can be improved as a result of achieving more effective pollination. Honey bee pollination also provides a service to managers of eucalypt forests, in stimulating seed set in "shy" types such as the Ash varieties including E. regnans and E. delegatensis. It is important to note that while only
managed honey bees can provide paid pollination services, both feral
bees and managed bees provide the unpaid pollination services. The importance
of the pollination services provided by feral bees was dramatically
demonstrated when ferals (left unprotected) in the USA became infected
with the parasitic Varroa and Tracheal mites, and were exterminated
in large numbers. A pollination crisis, particularly amongst lucerne
seed and lucerne hay producers, resulted from this loss of feral bees.
It was reported in the American literature that almost all of the feral
bees in the USA had been eradicated by the mites, and that more than
60% of commercial honey bees had also been killed by the mites. This
dramatic reduction in bee population was observed to have a severe effect
on lucerne (alfalfa) production in the US. 5.3 Paid pollination services Gill (1989a) describes three ways in which crops may be pollinated by honey bees :
It has been conservatively estimated (see Chapter 4) that the total value of paid pollination services is in the order of $3 million per annum. However, as noted, individual States such as South Australia have provided much higher estimates, with up to $4.7 million being assessed as received from paid pollination services in this State alone. Other estimates of the income derived from paid pollination have been obtained for some States, as described in the following, while other States have indicated the crops for which bee pollination activities are more keenly sought : Western Australia. The canola crop of this State is the major recipient of pollination benefits, but virtually no canola grower is currently prepared to pay for pollination services. Other crops which benefit from beekeepers include fruit, clovers and export apples - there is nil market tolerance for misshapen fruit. Surveys of pollination services have been conducted since 1993, with the latest survey (Feb. 1997) indicating a total of 3,372 hives being involved in the provision of pollination services (Manning, 1997 - unpublished). A major increase in the numbers of hives involved has been observed since 1993, and indications are that around 5,000 hives could be involved in the provision of pollination services in 1998. Again, the application of rates of $30/hive would suggest that total income for beekeepers from pollination could be in the order of $150,000. However, as indicated, the majority of canola growers will not pay beekeepers for this service. Canola growers are currently able to gain pollination services at no cost, as alternative (coastal) apiary sites have been affected by fires and frosts, with beekeepers having a consequent need to place hives on flowering crops to build up the health of their bees. South Australia. Almonds are the most important single crop to benefit from bee pollination in this state, as almonds are totally dependent on bee pollination to set fruit and so produce nuts. However, almonds are not prolific sources of nectar, and despite relatively high rates for eastern States ($30 to $35 per hive) being offered by almond growers, some beekeepers have chosen not to place hives in almond orchards. It is reported (SA Dept. of Agriculture, personal communication.) that an average weight loss of 10 kg/hive can be experienced while hives are in almonds. This is because the bees are only gathering pollen, providing protein to the hive, but not nectar, from the almond blossom. At an average price of $1.50/kg, this loss of weight represents $15 of honey being consumed by the hive. When the costs of
New South Wales. Crops which use paid pollination services in NSW include lucerne and canola and clover (for seed), sunflowers, apples/pears, cherries, berries, melons and pumpkins, kiwifruit, plums, avocados, macadamias, faba beans, coriander and mustard. While contracts for paid pollination services are routinely provided, data on the number of hives involved is not available. However, it can be stated that the total value of paid pollination services would be several orders of magnitude less than the total value (in terms of additional crop production) derived from the pollination activities provided by managed and feral bees. Other sites may also provide incidental pollination services, where hives are placed adjacent to crops, but intended to allow bees to access other honey-yielding species such as yellow box (E. melliodora) and river red gum (E. camaldulensis) that occur on private property. Victoria. Pollination services in Victoria are important for fruit production including apples, pears, nashi, avocados, some stone fruits including cherries and plums, almonds, kiwifruit, blue berries and Rubus berries, and some strawberry cultivars. Cucurbits in general are heavily dependent as is a whole range of vegetable seeds (brassicas, onions, carrots). Field crops such as canola and sunflowers also benefit from pollination, especially hybrid seed production. Pollination is necessary for production of clover and lucerne seed for domestic and export sales and, in addition, existing pastures (clover) benefit from honey bee pollination through increased seed yields and reseeding of pastures. Increasingly, paid pollination is being used for crop production in Victoria, with a significant number of beekeepers deriving 20-40% of their income from this source. Agriculture Victoria estimates a minimum of 20,000 hives are used for pollination. At $30 per hive, the annual income would be about $600,000. This is clearly an underestimate as each hive might be used for more than one pollination service per year. The value is likely to be more like $1 million. Unpublished estimates prepared within Agriculture Victoria value the pollination services provided by honey bees (feral and managed) at up to $150 million. Sideline apiary enterprises, engaged in paid pollination of intensive horticultural and agricultural crops, are reported (Agriculture Victoria) to be very important. There are many apiarists in Victoria who operate colonies of 50+ hives, and provide a quality, commercial pollination service to growers on a long standing basis. Queensland. The pollination services provided by bees, both paid and unpaid, are very important in Queensland. The production of crops which are important for Queensland, and are also highly dependent on the activities of bees, include : - fruit and nut crops such as apples, stone fruit, avocados, cucurbits (especially rockmelons), mangos, and macadamias - field crops such as sunflowers - hybrid seed production, especially sunflowers - the production of pastures, via
the production of seeds such as lucerne and white clover.
Many other crops, including beans, citrus, strawberries, canola, and peanuts also benefit significantly from the pollinating activities of bees. Increasingly, cucurbit, avocado, pome and stone fruit growers are recognising the value of these pollinating activities, and are prepared to pay for the provision of such services. The beekeeping industry in Queensland values pollination activities at $500,000 per annum – this figure is supported by records indicating that 16,356 registered hives are used to provide pollination services, which can then be compared to an average payment of $30/hive. However it is generally accepted that hives are used for pollination more than once per year. The estimate of $500,000 is therefore regarded as a very conservative estimate. In the Northern Territory, honey bees play a significant role in pollinating horticultural crops including cucurbits (especially rockmelons and butternuts), mangoes and cashews. Depending on the year, 400-500 hives are used for paid pollination. However lack of effective pollination is still one of the factors limiting the development of the rockmelon industry and there is scope for expansion. With the development of the Ord River Scheme, pollination of both horticultural and field crops is currently and will continue to be an important factor, especially for seed production. 5.4 Assessments previously made of the value of unpaid pollination services A number of attempts have been made to derive estimates of the total value of pollination services provided by bees. Some of these are reported here. In New Zealand, it has been estimated that the total annual value of honey bee pollination to primary production (1992 data) is $3.089 billion, which has been calculated from the following assumptions : - replacement nitrogen from pollinated pasture legumes $1.872 billion - total value of fruit crop production $1.005 billion - total value of vegetables/seeds production $0.211 billion In contrast, the NZ beekeeping industry is estimated to receive just $8.8 million in income from pollination services – which represents 0.3% of the total value derived from bee pollination. Extensive analyses of the benefits of the pollination services provided by bees have been conducted in Australia by Gill. The many papers by Gill on the subject of estimating the pollination benefits imparted by managed honey bees acknowledge the conceptual hurdles involved in attempting to value the incidental pollination provided by bees. Studies completed by Gill (e.g., Gill 1989b) have assessed the likely total value of pollination benefits provided by bees as being in the order of $1.2 billion. It is suggested that a large range of values is possible, depending on the assumptions made – and in particular, the assumptions made as to elasticity of response of production to a drop in total output. Gill’s basic approach compares a value of production from a "with pollination" scenario, to that value produced in a "without pollination" scenario. The two scenarios are related to each other via "supply shock" factors for each type of crop – factors which indicate the proportion of production that would still be obtained, in the absence of bee pollination. This approach therefore contrasts to the New Zealand study, which appears to have involved a simple addition of total value of production from those crops considered highly dependent on bee/insect pollination. 5.5 A comprehensive approach to valuation of pollination services This study has attempted to develop an estimate of the value of pollination services in Australia, with data being gathered at a State level so that the value attributed to the pollination activities of bees in each State can be assessed. The valuable body of work completed by Gill has provided a strong foundation for this estimate of the value of incidental pollination. In this analysis, the term "pollination benefit" is taken as describing the marginal value added to the production of specified crops as a result of bee pollination. This assumption means that the benefit is assessed in terms of the amount by which production would be lost if bee pollination were not available – in other words, the percentage reduction in yield which would be expected if the crop in question were totally isolated from insect pollination. This percentage reduction is referred to by Gill as the "per cent supply shock" (see, for example, Gill 1989a), and represents the supply reduction that would occur if bees were to be removed. The methodology employed for this analysis has involved :
|
|
|
|
| Avocado, Almonds, Onions, Sunflower |
|
| Macadamia, Cucumber, Mango, Apples, Asparagus, Cherries, Kiwifruit, Rock melons, Pumpkins |
|
| Apricots, Water melons, other melons, Plums |
|
| Berries
Canola Citrus Nectarines Peaches Pears Cotton Grapes |